Which of the following are considered long-term effects of radiation?

Long-term effects of radiation exposure can manifest in several significant ways, making the selection of "All of the above" the correct choice in this context. Cancer and leukemia are well-established outcomes associated with prolonged exposure to ionizing radiation. Both conditions can develop years after the initial exposure, as radiation can cause damage to the DNA within cells, leading to uncontrolled cell growth and malignancy.

Genetic effects constitute another long-term consequence, where radiation can cause mutations that may not only affect the individual exposed but can also be passed on to subsequent generations. These genetic alterations can result in a variety of hereditary disorders or increased risks of diseases in offspring.

Cataracts are also a recognized long-term effect. Exposure to radiation can lead to significant changes in the eye's lens, which may result in cataract formation over time. This can affect vision and quality of life.

Since all the options represent documented long-term effects of radiation exposure, "All of the above" comprehensively encompasses the relevant consequences linked to radiation.